Disclaimer: If you need a custom written term, thesis or research paper as well as an essay or dissertation sample, choosing Success Essays - a relatively cheap custom writing service - is a great option. Get any needed writing assistance at a price that every average student can afford In her Ph.D. dissertation, Judith McCulloh found permutations of the song. As well as rearrangement of the three frequent elements, the person who goes into the pines, or who is decapitated, is described as a man, woman, adolescent, husband, wife, or parent, while the pines can be seen as representing sexuality, death, or loneliness Dissertation, Washington State Iniversity. [Return to text] A Library of Congress presentation on the Chinese in California is available online. [Return to text] See the article, "The Chicano Civil Rights Movement," for more information and links to recordings. [Return to text]
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William of Ockham c. But Ockham held important, often influential views not only in metaphysics but also in all other major areas of medieval philosophy—logic, physics or natural philosophy, theory of knowledge, ethics, dissertation spirituals, and political philosophy—as well as in theology. Ockham led an unusually eventful life for a philosopher. It was there that Ockham was sent. As an educational institution, even for higher education, London Greyfriars was a distinguished place; at the time, it was second only to the full-fledged Universities of Paris and Oxford.
Aroundwhen he was about 23, Ockham began his theological training. It is not certain where this training occurred. It could well have been at the London Convent, dissertation spirituals, or it could have been at Oxford, where there was another Franciscan convent associated with the university.
Then, probably inOckham returned to London Greyfriars, where he remained, dissertation spirituals. Nevertheless, London Greyfriars was an intellectually lively place, and Ockham was by no means isolated from the heat of academic controversy, dissertation spirituals. It was dissertation spirituals this context that Ockham wrote many dissertation spirituals his most important philosophical and theological works.
About the dissertation spirituals time, someone—it is not clear who—went from England to the Papal court at Avignon and charged Ockham with teaching heresy. Ockham was called to Avignon in May,to answer the charges. He never went back to England. While in Avignon, Ockham stayed at the Franciscan convent there. It should be pointed out that, although there were some dissertation spirituals pronouncements that came out of the investigation of Ockham, his views were never officially condemned as heretical.
Things came to a real crisis inwhen Michael and the Pope had a serious confrontation over the matter. Furthermore, dissertation spirituals, the heresy was not just an honest mistake; it was stubbornly heretical, a view John maintained even after he had been shown it was wrong. As a result, Ockham argued, Pope John was not just teaching heresy, but was a heretic himself in the strongest possible sense, and had therefore effectively abdicated his papacy. In short, Pope John XXII was no pope at all!
Under cover of darkness the night of May 26,Michael of Cesena, Ockham, and a few other sympathetic Franciscans fled Avignon and went into exile. They initially went to Italy, dissertation spirituals, where Louis Ludwig of Bavaria, dissertation spirituals, the Holy Roman Emperor, was in Pisa at the time, along with his court and retinue. On June 6,Ockham was officially excommunicated for leaving Avignon without permission.
Ockham stayed there, or at any rate in areas under Imperial control, until his death, dissertation spirituals. During this time, Ockham wrote exclusively on political matters.
Ockham is rightly regarded as one of the most significant logicians of the Middle Ages. Nevertheless, his originality and influence should not be exaggerated. For all his deserved reputation, his logical views are sometimes derivative [ 11 ] and occasionally very idiosyncratic.
Logic, for Ockham, is crucial to the advancement of knowledge. His Treatise on Predestination contains an influential theory on the logic of future contingent propositions, and other works as well include occasional discussions of logical topics, notably his Dissertation spirituals. Mental language, the language of thought, is thus the most primitive and basic level of language.
Part I goes on to lay out a fairly detailed theory of terms, including the distinctions between a categorematic and syncategorematic terms, b abstract and concrete terms, dissertation spirituals, and c absolute and connotative terms.
If Part I is about terms and Part II about propositions made up of terms, Part III is about arguments, dissertation spirituals are in turn made up of propositions made up of terms. It is divided into four subparts, dissertation spirituals. Part III. None of these notions is original with Ockham, although he develops them with great sophistication and employs them with skill.
This notion dissertation spirituals signification was unanimously accepted; although there was great dispute over what terms signified, there was agreement over the criterion. The function of language, therefore, is not so much to communicate thoughts from one mind to another, but to convey information about the world. In Summa of Logic I. In his first sense, a term signifies whatever things it is truly predicable of by means of a present-tensed, assertoric copula.
In the third sense, terms can also be said to signify certain things they are not truly predicable of, no matter the tense or modality of the copula. Bravery is not brave. A sentence signifies in this sense whatever it is that its terms primarily or secondarily signify. The theory of supposition was the centerpiece of late medieval semantic theory.
Supposition is not the same as signification. First of all, terms signify wherever we encounter dissertation spirituals, whereas they have supposition only in the context of dissertation spirituals proposition. But the differences go beyond that. Whereas signification is a psychological, cognitive relation, the theory of supposition is, dissertation spirituals, at least in part, dissertation spirituals, a theory of reference.
For Ockham, there are three main kinds of supposition [ 19 ] :. Although the mechanics of this part of supposition theory are well understood, in Ockham and in other authors, its exact purpose remains an open question. Although at first dissertation spirituals theory looks like an account of truth conditions dissertation spirituals quantified propositions, it will not work for that purpose.
And although the theory was sometimes used as an aid to spotting and analyzing fallacies, this was never done systematically and the theory is in any event ill suited for that purpose. Concepts, in other words, are natural signs : my dissertation spirituals of dog naturally signifies dogs. This arrangement provides an account of synonymy and equivocation in spoken and written language.
Two simple terms whether from the same or different spoken or written languages are synonymous if they are ultimately subordinated to the same concept; a single given term of spoken or written language is equivocal if it is ultimately subordinated to more than one concept. This raises an obvious question: Is there synonymy or equivocation in mental language itself? A great deal of modern secondary literature has been devoted to this question.
Trentman [] was the first to argue that no, there is no synonymy or equivocation in mental language. Spade [] likewise argued in greater detail, on both theoretical and textual grounds, dissertation spirituals, that there is no synonymy or equivocation in mental language.
More recently, Panaccio [, ], Tweedale [] both on largely textual groundsand Chalmers [] on mainly theoretical grounds have argued for a different interpretation, which now tends to be more widely accepted. The question is complicated, but it goes to the heart of much of what Ockham is up to. In order to see why, dissertation spirituals, let us return briefly to the theory of connotation. But in Summa of Logic I. For Ockham, there are two kinds of definitions: real definitions and nominal definitions, dissertation spirituals.
A real definition is somehow supposed to reveal the essential metaphysical structure of what it defines; nominal definitions do not do that. As Ockham sets it up, dissertation spirituals, all connotative terms have nominal definitions, never real definitions, dissertation spirituals, and absolute terms although not all of them have real definitions, dissertation spirituals, never nominal definitions.
Some absolute terms have no definitions at all, dissertation spirituals. Each of these traditional definitions is correct, and each in its own way dissertation spirituals the essential metaphysical structure of a human being.
But notice: the two definitions do not signify make us think of exactly the same things. The first one makes us think of all rational things in virtue of the first word of the definiens plus all animals whether rational or not, in virtue of the second word of the definiens.
They will primarily signify—be truly predicable of—exactly the same things, since they will primarily signify just what the term they define primarily signifies. But they can also secondarily signify other things as well. Nominal definitions, Ockham says, are different: There is one dissertation spirituals only one nominal definition for any given connotative term.
They reasoned as follows: a connotative term is synonymous with its nominal definition, but there is no synonymy in mental language according to Ockham; mental language, therefore, cannot dissertation spirituals both a simple connotative term and its complex nominal definition; since it must certainly have the resources for formulating adequate definitions, what must be dispensed with is the defined simple term; and since all connotative terms are supposed to have a nominal definition, it follows that mental language contains only absolute terms along with syncategorematic ones, of course.
The consequences were far-reaching. Not only did this interpretation claim to provide an overall understanding of what Ockham was up to, dissertation spirituals, but it also inevitably led to conclude that his whole nominalist program was bound to failure.
The program, consequently, was thought to require the semantical reduction of all relational terms to combinations of non-relational ones, dissertation spirituals seems hardly possible. Since spoken and written languages are semantically derivative on mental language, it is vital that we get the semantics of mental language to work out right for Ockham, or else the systematic coherence of much of what he has to say will be in jeopardy. For one thing, as Spade had remarked himself, dissertation spirituals, Ockham never systematically engages in explicit attempts at such semantical reductions, which would be quite odd if this was the central component of his nominalism.
Furthermore it was shown that Ockham did in fact hold that there are simple connotative terms in mental language. He says it explicitly and repeatedly, and in a variety dissertation spirituals texts from his earlier to his later philosophical and theological writings, dissertation spirituals.
If so, nothing prevents a simple connotative concept to coexist in mental language with its nominal definition. Ockham indeed explicitly denies that a complex definition is in general wholly synonymous with the corresponding defined term. The main point here is that such definitions, when correctly formulated, explicitly reveal the ontological commitments associated with the normal use of the defined terms. Ockham was a nominalist, dissertation spirituals, indeed he is the person whose name is perhaps most famously associated with nominalism.
But nominalism means many different things:. The first two kinds of nominalism listed above are independent of one another. Historically, there have been philosophers who denied metaphysical universals, but allowed individual entities in more ontological categories than Ockham does. Conversely, one might reduce the number of ontological categories, and yet hold that universal entities are needed in the categories that remain.
Moreover, as usually stated, it is a sentiment that virtually all philosophers, medieval or otherwise, would accept; no one wants a needlessly bloated ontology. The question, of course, is which entities are needed and dissertation spirituals are not. But even if we did know them, Ockham would still not allow that his Razor allows us to deny entities that are unnecessary.
For Ockham, the only truly necessary entity is God; everything else, dissertation spirituals, the whole of creation, is radically contingent through and through.
In short, Ockham does not accept the Principle of Sufficient Reason. Nevertheless, we do sometimes have sufficient methodological grounds for positively affirming the existence of certain things, dissertation spirituals. Ockham acknowledges three sources for such grounds three sources of positive knowledge. As he says in Sent. I, dist. That is, Ockham does not hold merely that there is no good reason for affirming universals, dissertation spirituals, so that we should refrain from doing so in the absence of further evidence.
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Disclaimer: If you need a custom written term, thesis or research paper as well as an essay or dissertation sample, choosing Success Essays - a relatively cheap custom writing service - is a great option. Get any needed writing assistance at a price that every average student can afford Dissertation, Washington State Iniversity. [Return to text] A Library of Congress presentation on the Chinese in California is available online. [Return to text] See the article, "The Chicano Civil Rights Movement," for more information and links to recordings. [Return to text] In her Ph.D. dissertation, Judith McCulloh found permutations of the song. As well as rearrangement of the three frequent elements, the person who goes into the pines, or who is decapitated, is described as a man, woman, adolescent, husband, wife, or parent, while the pines can be seen as representing sexuality, death, or loneliness
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